Key Terms

consciousness - the awareness of immediate experience

structuralism - based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related

introspection - the careful, systematic self-observation of one's own conscious experience

functionalism - based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure

natural selection - heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely than alternative characteristics to be passed on to subsequent generations and thus come to be "selected" over time

behaviorism - a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior

behavior - refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism

stimulus - any detectable input from the environment

unconscious - contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior

psychoanalytic theory - attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

humanism - a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth

applied psychology - the branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems

clinical psychology - the branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders

cognition - refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge

ethnocentrism - the tendency to view one's own group as superior to others and as the standard for judging the worth of foreign ways

evolutionary psychology - examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations

psychology - the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.

psychiatry - a branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders

empiricism - the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation

theory - a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations

culture - refers to the widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations

SQ3R - a study system designed to promote effective reading, which includes five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review

testwiseness - the ability to use the characteristics and format of a cognitive test to maximize one's score

critical thinking - the use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome

hypothesis - a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables

variables - any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study

theory - a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations

operational definition - describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable

participants (subjects) - the persons or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study

data collection techniques - procedures for making empirical observations and measurements

journal - a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry

research methods - consist of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies

experiment - a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result

independent variable - a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable

dependent variable - the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable

experimental group - consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable

control group - consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group

extraneous variables - any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study

confounding of variables - occurs when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects

random assignment - occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study

naturalistic observation - when a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects

survey - when researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather informtion about specific aspects of participant's behavior

statistics - the use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data

descriptive statistics - used to organize and summarize data

median - the score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores

mean - the arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution

mode - the most frequent score in a distribution

variability - refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean

standard deviation - an index of the amount of variability in a set of data

correlation - exists when two variables are related to each other

correlation coefficient - a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables

inferential statistics - used to interpret data and draw conclusions

replication - repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated

sample - the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study

population - the much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample is drawn) that researchers want to generalize about

sampling bias - exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

placebo effects - occur when participants' expectations lead them to experience some change even thought they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment

social desirability bias - a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself

response set - a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the question

experimenter bias - occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

double-blind procedure - a research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups

anecdotal evidence - consists of personal stories about specific incidents and experiences

-

learning - a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience

phobias - irrational fears of specific objects or situations

classical conditioning - (Pavlovian conditioning) - a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus

unconditioned stimulus - (UCS) a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

unconditioned response - (UCR) an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning

conditioned stimulus - (CS) a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response

conditioned response - (CR) a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

elicited - drawn forth

trial - in classical conditioning it consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli

acquisition - refers to the initial stage of learning something

extinction - the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency

spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus

stimulus generalization - occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

stimulus discrimination - occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

higher-order conditioning - a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning - (instrumental learning) a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences

law of effect - if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened

reinforcement - occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response

operant chamber - a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled

emit - to send forth

reinforcement contingencies - the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

cumulative recorder - creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time

shaping - consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response

resistance to extinction - occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated

discriminative stimuli - cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response

primary reinforcers - events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

secondary (conditioned) reinforcers - events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers

schedule of reinforcement - determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation or a reinforcer

continuous reinforcement - occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced

intermittennt (partial) reinforcement - occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

fixed-ratio schedule - the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses

variable-ratio schedule - the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses

fixed-interval schedule - the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed

variable-interval schedule - the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed

concurrent schedules of reinforcement - consist or two or more reinforcement schedules that operate simultaneously and independently, each for a different response

matching law - states that under concurrent schedules of reinforcement, organisms' relative rate of responding to each alternative tends to match each alternative's relative rate of reinforcement

optimal foraging theory - the food-seeking behaviors of many animals maximize the nutrition gained in relation to the energy expended to locate, secure, and consume various foods

positive reinforcement - occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation or a rewarding stimulus

negative reinforcement - occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus

escape learning - when an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation

avoidance learning - when an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring

punishment - occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response

instinctive drift - occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes

preparedness - involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others

observational learning - occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models

behavior modification - a systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning

encoding - involves forming a memory code

storage - involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time

retrieval - involves recovering information from memory stores

attention - involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

levels-of-processing theory - proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes

elaboration - linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding

dual-coding theory - holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

development - the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death

zygote - a one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg

prenatal period - extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy

germinal stage - the first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception

placenta - a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother

embryonic stage - the second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month

fetal stage - the third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth

age of viability - the age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth

fetal alcohol syndrome - a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy

motor development - the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities

cephalocaudal trend - the head-to-foot direction of motor development

proximodistal trend - the center-outward direction of motor development

maturation - development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint

developmental norms - indicate the median age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities

temperament - characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity

longitudinal design - observation of one group of participants repeatedly over a period of time

cross-sectional design - observations comparing groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time

attachment - the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers

separation anxiety - emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

stage - a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established

assimilation - involves interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them

accommodation - involves changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences

object permanence - develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible

conservation - Piaget's term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance

centration - the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects

irreversibility - the inability to envision reversing an action

egocentrism - thinking that is characterized by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint

animism - the belief that all things are living

habituation - a gradual reduction in the strength of a response when a stimulus event is presented repeatedly

dishabituation - occurs if a new stimulus elicits an increase in the strength of a habituated response

pubescence - used to describe the two-year span preceding puberty during which the changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place

secondary sex characteristics - physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but that are not essential for reproduction

puberty - the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, which marks the beginning of adolescence

primary sex characteristics - the structures necessary for reproduction

menarche - the first occurrence of menstruation

midlife crisis - a difficult, turbulent period of doubts and reappraisal of one's life

family life cycle - a sequence of stages that families tend to progress through

dementia - an abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment

sex - biologically based categories of female and male

gender - culturally constructed distinctions between femininity and masculinity

gender stereotypes - widely held beliefs about females' and males' abilities, personality traits, and social behavior

gender differences - actual disparities between the sexes in typical behavior or average ability

meta-analysis - combines the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable's effects

personality - an individual's unique constellation of consistent behavior

personality trait - a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations

factor analysis - when correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables

id - primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle

pleasure principle - demands immediate gratification of urges

ego - decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle

superego - the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong

conscious - consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time

preconscious - contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved

unconscious - contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the sruface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior

defense mechanisms - largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt

psychosexual stages - developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality

fixation - a failure to move forward from one stage to another as expected

Oedipal complex - children manifest erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent

personal unconscious - houses material that is not within one's conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten

collective unconscious - a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people's ancestral past

archetypes - emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal menaing

introverts - people who tend to be preoccupied with the internal world of their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences

extraverts - people who tend to be interested in the external world of people and things

striving for superiority - a universal drive to adapt, improve oneself, and master life's challenges

compensation - involves efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one's abilities

reciprocal determinism - the idea that internal mental events, external environmental events, and overt behavior all influence one another

observational learning - occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models

model - a person whose behavior is observed by another

self-efficacy - refers to one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes

phenomenological approach - assumes that one has to appreciate individuals' personal, subjective experiences to truly understand their behavior

self-concept - a collection of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior

incongruence - the degree of disparity between one's self-concept and one's actual experience

hierarchy of needs - a systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused

need for self-actualization - the need to fulfill one's potential, the highest need in Maslow's motivational hierarchy

self-actualizing persons - people with exceptionally healthy personalities, marked by continued personal growth

self-monitoring - refers to the degree to which people attend to and control the impressions they make on others in social interactions

self-enhancement - involves focusing on positive feedback from others, exaggerating one's strengths, and seeing oneself as above average