go to Key Terms page

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 11
Chapter 12

This page has been created by David Neff for Honors PSY105 44.
Chapter 1 is the section of this page developed for the web page project.
All other chapters remain Under Construction.

Words marked with (*) can be found on the Key Terms page.

Key TERMS

What is Psychology?
The response that many people would give to this question does not accurately portray the true extent of the study.

The word psychology is derived from two Greek words, psyche-the soul, and logos-the study of a subject.
In the 18th century, the term psychology started being used with more frequency. It took on the literal meaning of "the study of the mind."
What eventually developed into psychology was originally based on philosophy and physiology.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) was a German professor who lived between 1832 and 1920. He was the first person to work towards making psychology an independent discipline. In 1879, Wundt established the first official laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. Psychology was born. Shortly, in 1881, Wundt published the first journal dedicated to research of psychology.
Wundt's view of psychology was influential for decades. He said that it should be a science modeled after physics and chemistry. With a focus of consciousness*, psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience.

Many young scholars, including Americans, traveled to Leipzig to study under Wundt. The students then spread out across Germany and America, establishing new research laboratories that created the basis for the new science of psychology.

G. Stanley Hall (1846-1924) was a brief student of Wundt and gave many "firsts" to psychology in America. America's first psychological research lab was established by Hall at Johns Hopkins University in 1883. He also published America's first psychology journal and was elected the first president of the American Psychological Association which he pushed to create.

Approximately 24 new psychological research laboratories were established between 1883 and 1893 in the US and Canada. The figure below shows the labs.

Click image to enlarge.

Unfortunately psychology was not the type of science where a unified group of scholars simply added new discoveries to an uncontested body of facts.

One of the first major schools of thought in psychology was structuralism*. This school was brought into being with the help of Edward Titchner, an Englishman who came to the US in 1892. Titchner had studied under Wundt in Leipzig. However, he brought his own version of psychology to America. He thought that the purpose of psychology was to break consciousness down into its basic elements and see the relationships. Much of the structuralists' work concerned sensation and perception in vision, hearing, and touch. They would use careful, systematic self-observation of their own conscious experiences to examine the contents of consciousness. This process is known as introspection*.

The other major original school of thought was functionalism*. The main founder of this school was the American William James. The research methods of functionalism followed the idea that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness. James was impressed with the concept of natural selection* developed by Charles Darwin. The main notion of Darwin's evolutionary theory said that the general characteristics of a species must serve some purpose. James viewed the human consciousness as one of these important characteristics of our species. Therefore, he said that psychology should study the functions of consciousness. In addition, James argued that consciousness is a continuous flow of thoughts that he called the "stream of consciousness." Therefore, the structuralists missed seeing the real nature of consciousness because they analyzed consciousness into its elements by looking at static points in the flow. The functionalist approach brought an interest of how people adapt behavior with the demands of the real world around them. Thus, new subjects were introduced into psychology such as patterns of development in children, the effectiveness of educational practices and behavioral differences between the sexes. Some of these new subjects attracted the first women to the field of psychology.

Women have long made contributions to psychology. Today nearly half of all psychologists are female. However, women have often been overlooked in the history of psychology. This image shows three women who have made significant contributions to psychology almost from its beginning. Click image to enlarge.

Advocates of both structuralism and functionalism believed they were fighting for high stakes because the definition and future direction of the new science of psychology depended on them. Both schools eventually faded away. However, functionalism spawned the development of two descendants that have dominated modern psychology (behavior and applied psychology).

The debate between structuralists and functionalists was only the beginning of the many future controversies psychology would see. In the early 1900s, John Watson (1878-1958) founded a new school of thought known as behaviorism*. This school sought to abandon the study of consciousness altogether and focus only on behaviors that could be directly observed. Watson sought this shift because the scientific method demands that results can be verified. Watson said that scientists could study any behavior* of a person, but it is not possible to scientifically study internal thoughts. Watson also asserted a rather extreme position on one of psychology's fundamental questions. He said that in the nature vs. nurture debate, behavior is determined by the environment. The basic format of the behaviorist theory is that overt behaviors [responses] are caused by specific inputs from the environment [stimuli*]. Their goal was to study the relationship between stimuli and responses. Despite skepticism, Watson's view gradually took hold. Because of the stimulus-response approach that behaviorism took, there was an increase in animal research. Researchers preferred animals to humans because more control could be exerted on them, therefore reducing complicating factors.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian physician who became one of the most controversial intellectual figures in history. Freud's approach to psychology came about from his efforts to treat mental disorders. He worked to treat psychological problems such as fears, obsessions, and anxieties through an approach he called psychoanalysis. Freud developed his theories from both experience probing into his patients' lives and examining his own internal thoughts and urges. Through his work, Freud was persuaded of the existence of what he called the unconscious*. Though the parts of the unconscious are below conscious awareness, they still exert influence on behavior. Freud said that slips of the tongue and dreams often expressed important feelings that people are unaware of. Connecting his observations, Freud decided that psychological disturbances are caused by personal conflicts at the unconscious level. His psychoanalytic theory* attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders through the unconscious.

The concept of the unconscious was not entirely new, but it was a departure from the belief that people are aware of all forces affecting behavior. Freud made the disconcerting suggestion that people are not masters of their own minds. Other parts of his theory also caused debate. For example, Freud said that behavior is greatly influenced by how people cope with sexual urges. At the time, people were very uncomfortable discussing sex. In addition, Freud's theory conflicted with psychology's spirit of the times which was an emphasis on behavior. If scientists were uncomfortable trying to study conscious experience, they definitely did not want to think about unconscious experience. Despite this initial viewpoint, the psychoanalytic idea steadily gained credence in society influencing many parts of culture.

With the psychoanalytic theory coming into the picture, the behaviorists were weakening their strict stance on the internal mind. This weakening, however, was stopped in the 1950s by the work of B.F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner sought a return to Watson's focus on observable behavior. He did not deny the existence of internal mental events, but said they were insignificant. In addition, he argued that psychology could understand and predict behavior without resorting to physiological explanations.

The fundamental principle of behavior that Skinner developed is that organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes, and they tend not to repeat responses that lead to neutral or negative outcomes. Through applying his theory to laboratory animals, he showed that he could exert great control over the behavior of animals. Skinner also worked to show that the principles revealed in his animal research could be applied to complex human behaviors. In 1971, Skinner published a book called "Beyond Freedom and Dignity," where he said that all behavior is governed by external stimuli. Thus, Skinner had arrived at the conclusion that people are controlled totally by their environment and that free will is an illusion.

B.F. Skinner created considerable controversy when he asserted that free will is an illusion.

Like Freud, Skinner suffered harsh criticism, much from the misinterpretation of his ideas. Despite the controversy, behaviorism was the dominant school of thought during the 1950s and 1960s.

As behaviorism and the psychoanalytic theory flourished in the 1950s, many psychologists found these orientations unappealing and even dehumanizing. In response to this, the new school of humanism* was formed with a focus on the unique qualities of humans. The humanists' optimistic view of human nature maintained that people were not pawns of animal heritage or environmental circumstances. Some of the prominent people in the humanist movement have been Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Rogers said that human behavior is governed by an individual's sense of self which animals supposedly lack. Rogers and Maslow argued that to understand human behavior, we must take into account the fundamental human drive toward personal growth.

Humanists assert that people have a basic need to evolve as human beings and to fulfill their potentials. In fact, they say that many psychological disturbances are the result of a thwarting of this unique need.

With the coming of the 1950s, psychology was finally accepted as a profession. In addition to research, many psychologists take on the more practical job of providing professional services to the public. This practical branch of psychology which is very popular today is called applied psychology*. The first form of applied psychology to develop was clinical psychology which concerns the diagnosis and treatment of problems and disorders. The clinical field grew around the time of World War II as clinical psychologists were used to screen military recruits and treat soldiers suffering from trauma. On the academic side, many traditional research psychologists were upset by the professionalization of the field. They did not want to see a diverting of energy and resources from the area of research. Despite conflicts, the professionalization of psychology through applied psychology continues to grow, and now affects a large area of society.

Today's psychologists are renewing their interest in consciousness (now cognition) and the physiological bases of behavior. Cognition* involves thinking or conscious experience. With behaviorism dominating for several decades, investigation of unobservable mental processes was discouraged. However, due to several advances in areas such as children's cognitive development, psychological underpinnings of language, and problem solving, there has been a surge of interest in cognitive processes. Cognitive theorists argue that psychology must study internal mental events to fully understand behavior. Focusing only on overt behavior results in an incomplete picture of why people behave as they do. In addition, psychologists studying decision making, reasoning, and problem solving have shown that scientific methods can be devised to study cognitive processes.

Some findings relating the mind, body, and behavior have renewed an interest in the biological bases of behavior. Some of this interest stems from experiments relating to electrical stimulation of the brain and discoveries of specialized regions of the brain. Advocates of the biological perspective argue that much of human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of bodily structures and biochemical processes.

Western psychologists have traditionally looked at how their theories and research apply to non-Western cultures and ethnic minorities. In other words, they have had a problem with ethnocentrism*. In recent years psychologists have begun to realize that their culturally centered research diminishes the value of their work. Several factors have attributed to this shift to studying cultural components. Some of these include the civil rights movement, the women's movement, and the gay rights movement. Above all else, two recent trends appear responsible: 1) advances in communication ,travel, and international trade have put the world more in touch and increased global interdependence, and 2) the ethnic composition of the Western world has become more diverse and multicultural. Thus, psychologists are finally broadening their horizons to incorporate cultural factors in theories and research.

The most recent major development in psychology is the emergence of a new school of thought known as evolutionary psychology*. The basic premise of this psychology is that natural selection favors behaviors that benefit an organism and contribute to its reproductive success. This perspective is not entirely new. For example, over a century ago, functionalists were influenced by Darwin's concept of natural selection. Some arguments against the evolutionary school say that evolutionary hypotheses are untestable and that evolutionary explanations are mere speculative accounts for obvious behavioral phenomena. However, advocate of the evolutionary perspective have produced persuasive rebuttals to these and other criticisms.

Overall, we have seen that psychology is a constantly growing and evolving enterprise through the continual development of new and renewed ideas.

Though psychologists receive broad training, they usual specialize in a specific area of psychology. This specialization is necessary because the field of psychology is so large.

Applied psychology consists of four main areas of specialization seen in the figure below. Some people may be confused about the difference between clinical psychology and psychiatry*. Both treat psychological disorders, but psychiatrists receive additional medical training. Therefore, psychiatry is a branch of medicine, and psychiatrists are authorized to prescribe medicine.

Psychology is empirical* because the conclusions made are based on direct observation instead of reasoning, speculation, traditional beliefs, or common sense. Scientists conduct research to put ideas to the test. An empirical approach requires skepticism. Psychologists must be able to think critically about generalizations of behavior.

Psychology is based on observation. However, after the facts are collected, psychologists attempt to explain and understand their observations by constructing a theory*. When looking at psychology's history, one thing is clear--there is much diversity among theories. No single theory can adequately explain all parts of behavior. Generally, theories focus on different aspects of behavior. Contemporary psychologists are increasingly beginning to recognize that theoretical diversity is a strength. Often, differing theoretical perspectives give a more complete understanding of behavior than any one perspective could alone.

There are connections between psychology and what happens in everyday society. Social trends have often left an imprint on psychology. For example, in recent years we have seen how growing global interdependence and increased cultural diversity have caused psychologists to shift their focus to cultural factors as determinants of behavior. Psychology, in turn, also affects society. For example, various theorists have influenced parenting styles. Ultimately, society and psychology influence each other in complex ways.

As psychology has developed over the years, it has led to the understanding that behavior is complex, and most aspects of behavior are determined by multiple causes.

Cultural factors are a particularly prominent determinant of behavior. Culture* is a human-made part of the environment. Culture can include everything from a society's legal system to its assumptions about family roles, from its dietary habits to its political ideals, from its technology to its attitudes about time, from its modes of dress to its spiritual beliefs, and from its art and music to its unspoken rules about sexual liaisons. The influence of culture is everywhere, but generalizations about cultural groups must be tempered by the realization that there is also diversity within any society or ethnic group. If we want to obtain a significant understanding of human behavior, we must consider cultural determinants.

Throughout history there has been a debate about whether genetics or the environment plays the major role in how a person develops. Today, most psychologists are in agreement that both heredity and environment contribute significantly. In addition, psychologists are working to understand the complex ways in which genetic inheritance and experience interact to mold behavior.

People actively process incoming stimulation, selectively focusing on some aspects while ignoring others. In addition, people impose organization on the stimuli to which they pay attention. These operations tend to make perception personalized and subjective. Studies also show that people sometimes see what they want or expect to see. The scientific method is designed to attempt to counteract human subjectivity.

1. Set up a schedule for studying.
2. Find a place to study where you can concentrate.
3. Reward your studying.

1. Survey: Glance over topics covered in the chapter.
2. Question: Convert section headings to questions to be answered.
3. Read: Read a specific section.
4. Recite: Answer your question for the section.
5. Review: Refresh your memory by going back over the key points.

• Active listening
• Reading ahead
• Write information in your own words
• Asking questions

• Efficient time use
• Skip when unsure and come back later
• Adopt appropriate level of sophistication for the test (don't read into questions)
• Check over test

• Anticipate the answer
• Read each question completely
• Learn how to eliminate options
• Information relevant to one question is sometimes given elsewhere on test
• Options representing broad generalizations tend to be incorrect
• Options that represent careful qualified statements tend to be correct

• Efficient time use
• Organization in responses
• Use appropriate jargon and terminology

Critical thinking* is the use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. Critical thinking is purposeful, reasoned thinking. A critical thinker is flexible, persistent, able to admit mistakes, and mindful of the thinking process.

Key TERMS

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Erickson's Stage Theory of Personality Development
Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust (Is my world predictable and supportive?) [yr.1]
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Can I do things muself or must I always rely on others?) [yrs.2-3]
Stage 3: Initiative vs. guilt (Am I good or am I bad?) [yrs.4-6]
Stage 4: Industry vs. inferiority (Am I competent or am I worthless?) [yr.6-puberty]
Stage 5: Identity vs. confusion (Who am I and where am I going?) [adolescence]
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. isolation (Shall I share my life with another or live alone?) [early adulthood]
Stage 7: Generativity vs. self-absorption (Will I produce something of real value?) [middle adulthood]
Stage 8: Integrity vs. despair (Have I lived a full life?) [late adulthood]

Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development
Stage 1: Sensorimotor (coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence) [yr.1]
Stage 2: Preoperational (development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism) [yrs.2-7]
Stage 3: Concrete operational (mental operations applied to concrete events; mastery of conservation, hierarchical classification) [yrs.7-11]
Stage 4: Formal operational (mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking) [yr.11-adult]

Kohlberg's Stage Theory of Moral Development
Preconventional level
Stage 1: Punishment orientation (right and wrong determined by what is punished)
Stage 2: Naive reward orientation (right and wrong determined by what is rewarded)
Conventional level
Stage 3: Good boy/girl orientation (right and wrong determined by close others' approval or disapproval)
Stage 4: Authority orientation (right and wrong determined by society's rules and laws, which should be obeyed rigidly)
Postconventional level
Stage 5: Social contract orientation (right and wrong determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute)
Stage 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation (right and wrong is determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice)

Key TERMS

The five main personality traits are considered to be: AGREEABLENESS, NEUROTICISM (negative emotionality), EXTRAVERSION (positive emotionality), OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE, CONSCIENTIOUSNESS (constraint)