“Sound effects” in poetry:

1. Onomatopoeia--direct imitation of a natural sound (hiss, bang, slither, choke; “black flak”)

2. Imitation of movement

            a. Abrupt/sustained contrasts in types of consonants (plosives such as B,D,K, or P, as

                           opposed to liquids and fricatives such as L,M,N,S,F)

            b. Acceleration and impedance: clusters of unaccented syllables speed up the line;

                        clusters of accented syllables slow it down.

            c. High/low and open/closed contrasts: “throw . . . slow” versus “swift . . . skims”)

3. Ease or difficulty of pronunciation: e.g., aspirated consonants imitate difficult breathing:

            “hoarse, rough verse”; “oh how shall summer’s honey breath hold out”; tongue-twisting

            combinations of consonants can imitate difficulty or precision of movement (“my stick

            fingers click with a snicker”).

4. Imitation of music (euphony) or noise (cacophony): “lap me in soft Lydian airs / Married to

            immortal verse” is euphonious; “grate on scrannel pipes of wretched straw” is

            cacophonous.