Masculinity in Revolutionary Europe

I. American Revolution

A. Emergence of the citizen-soldier

1. fights for self as an autonomous man

2. to this concept in reality

B. Republican Manhood

1. founders are concerned about virtue

II. French Revolution

A. Three causes of the French Revolution

1. Bankruptcy of the Royal Government (1787)

2. anger at social system of privilege

3. enlightenment ideals of equality and reason

B. Key stages in revolution of 1789

1. demand for equality of 3rd Estate

2. Tennis Court Oath--Third Estate becomes the National Assembly

3. Formation of militias and attack on Bastille

4. Abolition of Feudalism

5. Declaration of the Right of Man and Citizen

6. March on Versailles

C. Equation of citizenship and manhood

1. equality of men--distinction open to the talents

2. all men are active citizens

a. politics

b. militia

3. sexual difference and masculinity become the defining quality of citizenship [Dudink, p. 11]

4. reversion to the classical model of Greece, Rome

a. Example of J.L. David's "Oath of the Horatii"

D. Equation of home and ideals with femininity

1. Lady Liberty

E. The Masculine and the Feminine dimensions of the Nation

intensified in the Terror

1. Terror is war against the enemies of the Revolution

a. war, guillotine, Vendee

2. levée en masse-male body is the active nation

3. Festival of the Supreme Being

a. distinct male and female roles in the ritual

--oak leaves for men; flowers for women

b. male as active and female as passive

III. Age of Napoleon

A. Builds on the power of citizen soldier

1. limits class and gender radicalism of revolution

a. replace direct action with follow-the-leader

B. Completes the development of nationalism

1. from republican virtue to national mission

2. Napoleon represents the nation by defining the mission

IV. Case of Prussia

A. Prussian Nationalism born in the threat of extinction

1. Reformers know they must imitate France to defeat it

2. Rise as a nation--universal conscription

3. Carl von Clausewitz’s book On War

a. find the secrets of French military success and

military success in general

B. Reformation of masculinity is a key tool in creating the subject-soldier

1. masculinity of duty, courage, service and sacrifice, not of autonomy and rights.

a. Clausewitz suggests men have autonomy as soldiers

(war is politics)

b. need was for personal identification with warmaking

2. king is not a hero like Napoleon

a. one does not follow king by choice

b. King represents nation

c. soldier becomes a hero of duty fighting for nation

3. Idea of citizen-soldier survives in Germany, but is

defeated in 1848-9

V. Case of Great Britain

A. Contrast to France and Prussia

1. neither rights nor conscription

2. the call to battle for nation against Napoleon does

trigger aspirations for rights, and puts pressure on

conservative order