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How can it arise, then, if not by magic? And how can one impossible idea
be more surprising, more creative, than another? How can creativity happen? -
Margaret Boden, 1995 |
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In recent years, traditional human characteristics
such as love, the self, and the soul have been considered to be mere chemical
exchanges or information processes within the brain. Researchers in
biology, psychology, and sociology are dissecting what creativity is to humans. Originally,
psychologists and biologists ignored such topics because the various schools
of thought believed these characteristics could not be proven with the scientific
method or using empirical data. Thus, they were not important to study.
Now becoming one of the most widely debated human traits, creativity is
a phenomenon that allows humans to invent, solve problems, and evolve. From
inventions and
innovations to artistic and musical masterpieces to simply developing a
solution
for scheduling conflicts, the results of creativity are innumerable and
their impact on society is immeasurable. There are many different scientific,
psychological, and philosophical approaches to how and why humans possess
the gift of creativity.
In the past, scientists believed that creativity was an activity that occupied
the right side of the brain. More recently though, brain scans
have shown that both sides of the brain are used for problem solving and
creative thinking. Click here,
to learn more about the two sides of the brain.
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"It can be argued that throughout human history, our most valued ability has been intelligence - the capacity to learn and to use existing knowledge. In the new millennium, this will no longer be so. Creativity, the ability to produce new knowledge, will become our most cherished trait.
-John
Dacey, 1998 |
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Listed below are some of the main views on how and why humans create.
Cognitive Approach
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Behaviorist Approach
Intrinsic Motivational Perspective
Humanistic Approach
Historiometric Perspective
Developmental Approach
Cognitive Approach
Cognitive Psychology is a relatively new form of analysis that studies
the mental processes that govern human behavior. Cognitive Psychology was published
in 1967 by Ulric Neisser and this is when he coined the term ‘cognition. In
this writing Neisser provided his own definition of the word as referring "to
all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated,
stored, recovered, and used. Neisser likened human cognition to computer
processes. With this publication, he began a highly contentious debate
concerning the `capacity for an artificial intelligence to produce human-like
decisions, reactions, emotions, and even creativity.
For further reading,
information can be found in:
Noppe, Lloyd D. "A Cognitive Style Approach to Creative Thought." Journal
of Personality Assessment, v. 41 issue 1, 1977, p. 85.
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Freud, the main proponent of this general school of thought, argued
that creativity was an occurrence of the subconscious. When humans attempt
to avoid pain,
they create pleasure through daydreams and dreams. According to this
theory, it is in these fabrications of the mind that creativity is derived.
In
1908, Freud argued that "unsatisfied wishes are the driving power
behind fantasies; every separate fantasy contains the fulfillment of
a wish, and improves
an unsatisfactory reality. The main criticism of this perspective
suggests that creativity cannot occur for any other reason than as
a result of suffering.
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The Behaviorist Approach
The Behaviorist Approach discounts any proposition that believes there
to be an inner self-guiding thought or source of creativity. Proponents of this
theory instead insist that creativity is a combination of previously known knowledge
joining together spontaneously, which gives the individual the impression that
this is a new idea or inspiration. B.F. Skinner, the most well-known
theorist of behaviorism, believed that creativity was simply a conditioned
response to
certain situations.
The Intrinsic Motivational Approach
"Creativity is a type of learning process
where the teacher and pupil are located in the same individual."
- Arthur Koestler, 1905-1938 |
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Within the past thirty years, intrinsic motivation has been argued to be
an integral part of creative thought. It is postulated that without
intrinsic motivations even "unusually high levels of skill or a deep
conceptual understanding would not be sufficient to produce creativity.
External goals, such as awards or public recognition, are not what enable
humans
to be creative. Rather, intrinsic motivational ideology holds that
people reach their creative potential through their desire for pleasure
in the activities in which they engage. Intrinsic motivation is an activity
that is pleasurable
or satisfying in and of itself, and it is from this sort of activity that
creativity flourishes. A major criticism of this belief is that not
all creativity or inventive thoughts come from enjoyment of an activity.
Some creations are derivatives of necessity, such as for occupational objectives
or for survival purposes, rather than an eagerness to undertake an activity.
For further reading, information can be found in:
Hennessey, Beth A.. "The Social Psychology of Creativity. Scandinavian
Journal of Educational Research, v. 47 issue 3, 2003, p. 253.
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The Humanistic
Approach
Humanists assert that creativity is an agent of the individual and is seen
as an important trait of human beings personalities. Creative
thought is viewed as an intimate experience specifically granted to humans. Humanists
do not centralize their argument on ‘why humans are creative
because, as they contend, ‘why will not answer ‘how humans
create. Humanism believes that creativity is a complex human characteristic
that cannot be measured simply by observing a creative idea or product at
the time of conception. Instead, they insist that creativity is a
long, progressively unfolding activity that must be observed through the
lifetime
of the creative individual. For further reading, information can be found in:
Lavery, David. "Creative Work: On the Method of Howard Gruber. Journal
of Humanistic Psychology, v. 33 issue 2, 1993, p. 101.
Historiometric Approach
The goal of the historiometric perspective is to develop general laws surrounding
both psychology (about individual and group behavior) and history (about
patterns of change and stability across nations and cultures). Achieving
this, researchers use statistical analyses of quantitative data extracted
from historical individuals. These studies reveal, as historiometricism
believes, that individuals of extreme creative abilities contain innate as
well as acquired creative characteristics. Historiometrists further
believe that specific societal and political conditions can lead to
high levels of creativity within individuals, i.e. political instability
increases
creativity whereas imperial consolidation inhibits it.
For further reading, information can be found in:
Simonton, Dean Keith. Genius, Creativity, and Leadership: Historiometric
Inquiries. Cambridge, Mass., and London, Harvard University Press,
1984, 8vo, pp. ix, 231.
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Developmental Approach
As Serge Lebovici, a leader of developmental psychology, contends,
there are three rules that can be applied to creativity: creativity is anticipatory
and goal-oriented, developmental creativity is both experienced as a shared
activity and individually, and creativity is an activity that requires observation
and interaction. In general, this perspective maintains that the majority
of creative behavior exists in younger life and declines with the passage
of time. John Dacey, in researching creative activity over
life spans, has developed a table of peak periods for creativity,
which is
depicted below
and illustrates differences between males and females.
| Males Ages | Females Ages |
| 1. 0-5 |
1. 0-5 |
| 2. 11-14 | 2. 10-13 |
| 3. 18-20 | 3. 18-20 |
| 4. 29-31 | 4. 29-31 |
| 5. 40-45 | 5. 40-45 |
| 6. 60-65 | 6. 60-65 |
Developmental Creativity focuses on the need for creative abilities and
imagination in order to learn and socialize from infantile stages. Therefore,
more creative thought is required at younger ages. This approach does
not appear to concentrate heavily on unconventional thought or innovation,
but rather the need for creativity in the acquisition of knowledge.
For further
reading, information can be found in:
Emde, Robert N.. "Perspectives from Developmental Psychology and Three
Core Questions. Infant Mental Health Journal, v. 16 issue 1, 1995,
p. 28.
Dacey, John, S. and Lennon, Kathleen, H.. Understanding Creativity:
The Interplay of Biological, Psychological, and Social Factors. San
Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1998
This page has been created by Senior Honors Institute Fellow James Knupp. |
